Countries

Australia · major producer of cultured South Sea pearls (from Pinctada maxima) off the northwest coast in the vicinity of the old pearling port of Broome, with its rich history of gathering Silver-lipped Pearl Oysters for their mother-of-pearl and incidental pearls. This industry uses wild-collected adult oysters although pearl-oyster culturing is now providing a small supplemental percentage. Since the 1990s, there were also developing Akoya industries (Pinctada fucata) in New South Wales, black pearl industries (Pinctada margaritifera) off the northern and western coasts, and abalone pearl industries (Haliotis sp.) in Tasmania. In 1961, one author mentioned the freshwater pearl mussel Cucumerunio novaehollandiae as having potential for freshwater pearl culturing.

Austria · historical records of collecting Margaritifera margaritifera for natural freshwater pearls.

Bangladesh · commercial pearl industry not well developed, but natural pearls are recorded from freshwater pearl mussels (Ferreysia spp.; pink pearls from Lamellidens marginalis; gold pearls from L. daccaensis), and several marine species (small white pearls from Placuna placenta; Pinctada fucata “available”); pearl culturing being investigated using L. marginalis.

Canada — The range of Margaritifera margaritifera includes Newfoundland, but there is not a strong history of pearl gathering associated with it. Abalone pearl culturing is occurring on the western coast.

Ceylon · This is one of the historic centers for pearl gathering (from Pinctada radiata), specifically in the Gulf of Manaar. As described in 1913, the clams live in banks on a hard bottom plateau, 10-20 meters deep. The plateau is mainly sand with scattered rock outcrops to which the pearl oysters attach in clusters of several to many individuals. Over the course of years, an assemblage has formed on the plateau consisting of dead pearl oyster shells, worm tubes, calcareous algal clumps, and dead coral; this is necessary for the larval pearl oysters to settle and metamorphose into juvenile pearl oysters.

References: Herdman, 1905; Herdman & Hornell, 1903-1906; Dakin, 1913; Webster, 1978.

China · now the world’s largest freshwater pearl producer, formerly using Cristaria plicata (1960s-1980s) and later Hyriopsis cumingii, mainly for tissue-nucleation but some for bead-nucleation. Lamprotula mansuyi is also studied for some pearl-related uses. Akoya pearls (Pinctada fucata) have also been cultured since 1958, with improving success; P. margaritifera and P. maxima are now also in cultivation.

References: Hague, 1856; Jackson, 1916; Jobbins & Scarratt, 1990; Xi & Min, 1990; Oda, 1992; Niu Bingyue, 1994; Wang & Wu, 1994; Ge, 1996; Feng, 1997; Anonymous, 1998; Landra, 1998; Scheung, 1999; Holewa, 2000; Scarratt, et al., 2000; Akamatsu, et al., 2001; Gems & Gemology, Summer 1994.

China (Taiwan) — Anodonta woodiana being investigated for freshwater pearl culture.

Cook Islands · commercial pearl culturing of black pearls (from Pinctada margaritifera) began in the early 1970s. Prior to that, Penrhyn Lagoon was noted for its fabulous natural black pearls (from P. margaritifera) as well as small natural golden Pipi pearls (from P. maculata), still harvested today. In Penrhyn, the two species of pearl oysters cluster on coral heads from the surface to 2 meters deep. Outside of pearl culturing, the native pearl oyster populations are said to be insufficient to justify commercial exploitation, and local law forbids foreigners from harvesting them

Czechoslovakia (now Czech and Slovak Republics) — historical records of collecting Margaritifera margaritifera for natural freshwater pearls.

Denmark — natural freshwater pearl fishing (presumably from Margaritifera margaritifera) in the early 1900s.

Egypt — in addition to using pearls and pearl-shell from other sources (e.g., India), Ancient Egyptians were also familiar with their own local freshwater pearls from Aetheria and Unio species.

Europe · historical records of collecting Margaritifera margaritifera for natural freshwater pearls, especially in Germany and Scotland. The species is now heavily regulated by conservation measures. See also Austria, Germany, Great Britain, Ireland, Norway, Scotland.

Finland — early pearl culturing experiments were mentioned by Gray in 1825.

French Polynesia · major producer of cultured black pearls (from Pinctada margaritifera, especially the Tahitian “subspecies” cumingii) in the atoll lagoons of the Gambier Archipelago. Prior to pearl culturing, Black-lipped Pearl Oysters were heavily harvested for their mother-of-pearl. Pearl culturing began in 1968, and has developed rapidly. This industry uses spat collectors to collect larvae from wild populations of adult pearl oysters, which are then reared in laboratories until large enough for nucleation. Natural populations of Pinctada maculata settle on the culturing baskets used for P. margaritifera; these yield a small but lucrative harvest of natural golden Pipi pearls.

References: Seurat, 1906; Reed, 1973; Lintilhac, 1985; Salomón & Roudnitska, 1986; Goebel & Dirlam, 1989; Porter, 1991; Coeroli, 1992; Intés, 1992, 1994; Saquet, 1992; Cuif, et al., 1993; Buestel, et al., 1995; Pardon, 1996; Saquet & Dilhan, 1996; Doubilet, 1997; Southgate & Beer, 1997; Pouvreau, et al., 1998; Pouvreau, 1999; Wan, 1999.

Fiji — Spat collection of Pinctada margaritifera and Pteria penguin are being evaluated.

France — natural freshwater pearl fishing (presumably from Margaritifera margaritifera) in the early 1900s.

Germany — historical records of collecting Margaritifera margaritifera for natural freshwater pearls.

Great Britain — historical records of collecting Margaritifera margaritifera and Unio elongata for natural freshwater pearls. See also Scotland.

Hawaii · Pinctada margaritifera and P. fucata were historically harvested for pearls and pearl shell. Commercial pearl gathering in 1927-1928 harvested 100 tons of P. margaritifera from reefs northwest of Honolulu, seriously impacting the natural populations and leading to restrictions. Current efforts are toward culturing P. fucata and P. margaritifera (specifically the Hawaiian “subspecies” galtsoffi).

Honduras — natural marine pearl fishing (presumably from Pinctada imbricata) in the pre-Columbian capital of Copan.

India · historical records of extensive pearl gathering in Pinctada radiata (see Ceylon). Pearl culturing using P. radiata is being developed, including induced spawning and spat collecting methods. Several freshwater species (Lamellidens marginalis, L. corrianus, Ferreysia corrugata) are being investigated for gonadal bead nucleation.

References: Ball, 1889; Jackson, 1916; Alagarswami, 1970, 1974; Ram, 1989; Raut & Biswas, 1989; FAO/UNDP Regional Seafarming Project, 1991; Dev, 1994; Sonkar, 1994; Velayudhan, et al., 1995; Rao & Devaraj, 1996; Velayudhan, et al., 1996; Nayar, et al., 1997; Janaki Ram, 1997; Appukuttan, et al., 1998; Panigrahi, 1997; http://business.vsnl.com/pearlindia/f6.html.

Indonesia · A Japanese team lead by Dr. Sukeyo Fujita produced South Sea cultured pearls in Silver-lipped Pearl Oysters (Pinctada maxima) in the Celebes (now Sulawesi, Indonesia) in 1928, continuing until World War II. Later operations (1950-1960) produced significant quantity of large cultured South Sea pearls from Dobo, Arafura Sea, called “Dobo pearls.” These activities and cultivation of blister pearls (same species) are now reactivated, using spat collection or hatchery propagation, and nuclei made of artificial resin. “Warmer” pearl colors predominate – champagne, cream, yellow, gold, pink – with thick nacre and high luster. More than 50 farms existed and an estimated 2 million nucleations were performed in 1999. Some Akoya pearl production also occurs.

References: Winanto, 1994; Anonymous, 1997; Soedharma, 1998; Müller, 1999; Sutton, 1999; Jewellery News Asia, October 1999.

Ireland · historical records of collecting Margaritifera margaritifera for natural freshwater pearls.

Japan · The historical center of pearl culture since the 1920s in Ago Bay (Pinctada fucata, formerly known P. martensii) and in Lake Biwa in freshwater Hyriopsis schlegelii (although originally Cristaria plicata). In Ago Bay, Akoya pearl oysters are laboratory spawned and reared; the recent pearl virus that has decimated the pearl oyster crop along with regular red tides since the 1990s may be due in part to genetic weakening. Lake Biwa is now too polluted to be used for pearl culturing, and the endemic Biwa Pearl Mussel is extinct. Today, a hybrid freshwater mussel, crossed between H. schlegelii and the Chinese H. cumingii, is being used for culture freshwater pearls in lakes surrounding Lake Biwa and in Lake Kasumigaura near Tokyo.

References: Haynes, 1921; Cahn, 1949; Reece, 1958; Schenck, 1963; Simard, 1992; Landra, 1998; Akamatsu, 1999.

Kiribati (Gilbert Islands) — experimental pearl farms ebing initiated in 2001 using Pinctada margaritifera.

Korea — several web pages in Korean language mention pearl mollusks - Cristaria plicata, Pinctada maxima, and P. margaritifera, but the extent of this industry is unresearched. Abalone pearl culturing is also under development in Korea.

Kuwait · Modern pearl harvesting from wild populations of Pinctada radiata yields commercial pearls (> 3 mm) in 1 of every 4,200 pearl oysters.

Marshall Islands — a black pearl (Pinctada margaritifera) culturing demonstration project, affiliated with a Hawaiian venture, was in place to attract investors in 2001. Pearl culturing at Arno Atoll, using Pinctada margaritifera, initiated in 1994.

Mexico · natural pearls from Pinctada mazatlanica and Pteria sterna were renowned, but both species were fished out by the end of the 19^th century. Shortly after, Gastón Vivès attempted to cultivate Pinctada mazatlanica in Baja California, in crowded conditions that would promote natural pearl formation, but his efforts ended with the Mexican revolution of 1914. Pearl fishing was formally prohibited in 1940, and both species were classed as endangered in 1994. New World black pearls (free and mabé) are now being produced in a small number of pearl farms.

References: Townsend, 1889; Jackson, 1916; Hertlein, 1950; Shirai & Sano, 1972; Estrada, 1977; Saucedo-Lastra, 1991; Farrell, et al., 1994; Monteforte, 1994; Monteforte & Aldana, 1994; Monteforte & Bervera, 1994; Monteforte, et al., 1994; Saucedo, et al., 1994; García-Domíngguez, et al., 1996; Cáceres & Chávez, 1997; Saucedo-Lastra & Monteforte, 1997; Anonymous, 1999; Cariño & Monteforte, 1999; Fassler, 1999; Rangel-Davalos, et al., 1999; Saucedo-Lastra, et al., 19??; Pearl World, January-March 2001.

Myanmar · Burma once offered the rarest, finest and most valuable South Sea pearls – of high silky luster and fine pink-white color. In the mother-of-pearl shell trading business since the 1890s, Japanese Kichiro Takashima introduced pearl culturing techniques to Burma in 1954; the first regular harvest was in 1957. Today, Myanmar pearls from P. maxima are “warmer in color tone” than South Sea pearls from Australia and elsewhere; the dominant color is gold. P. maxima are partly hatchery-produced, supplemented by wild collection of ca. 20,000 shells/year, and are nucleated and maintained using Australian technology.

New Zealand · blister pearls are being cultured in the paua abalone, Haliotis iris, with the first commercial harvest in 1997.

References: Brown, 1988; Wentzell, 1998; McKenzie, 1999; Pearl World, January-March 2001.

Norway · historical records of collecting Margaritifera margaritifera for natural freshwater pearls.

Pakistan — natural pearls presumably from Pinctada radiata. Brownish pink natural pearls from Pakistan were seen at the New York World’s Fair in 1964.

Panama · historical center of gathering pearls from Pinctada mazatlanica by Spanish explorers, feeding the pearl craze of the European Renaissance. The famous pearl, La Peregrina, is most likely from a Panamanian P. mazatlanica.

Persian Gulf · most important historical region of pearl harvesting, around what is now Bahrein, for Pinctada radiata and P. margaritifera. The discovery of oil in the region in the early 1930s ended pearl harvesting as an industry, and a pearl culturing industry has, at least until very recently, never developed. Today, pearl diving is practiced only as a hobby. Still, Bahrain remains one of the foremost trading centers for high quality pearls.

Peru — natural marine pearl fishing (presumably from Pinctada mazatlanica, Pteria sterna, and Haliotis spp.).

Philippines · culturing of South Sea pearls from Pinctada maxima reared in hatcheries or wild-collected. The South Sea pearl was declared the national gem of the Philippine Islands in 1996. There were 23 pearl farms in the Philippines in 1998, the largest on the southwestern island of Palawan. Experimentation also ongoing on introduced freshwater pearl mussels (Cristaria plicata, Anodonta spp.).

References: Doumenge, et al., 1991 [2 articles]; Landra, 1994; Luyun, 1994; Loviny, 1996; Landra, 1997, 1998; Müller, 1999; Sanchez, 1999.

Qatar · no records of pearl culturing per se, although Pinctada radiata is being used as a bioindicator for metal pollution monitoring.

Red Sea · historic center of pearling from Pinctada radiata. P. margaritifera has also been collected, mainly for mother-of-pearl shell.

Russia — historical records of collecting Margaritifera margaritifera for natural freshwater pearls; wild populations diminished in mid-20^th century due to pollution and overcollecting.

Scotland · historical records of collecting Margaritifera margaritifera for natural freshwater pearls.

Seychelles — aquaculture projects are ongoing on Pinctada margaritifera, P. maxima and Pteria penguin, with the first cultured pearls expected in 1998.

Solomon Islands — The Solomon Islands have Pteria penguin, Pinctada margaritifera, and P. maxima in pearl culture. A pearl culturing venture using P. margaritifera was started in 1996 to attract investors.

Sudan · Pinctada margaritifera fished for mother-of-pearl; cultured pearls from P. margaritifera are being called “Red Sea Cultured Pearls” to distinguish them from Tahitian Cultured Pearls (from the same species from French Polynesia).

Thailand · Japanese collaborators established the oldest pearl farm, at Naga Island, in the 1960s. Marine pearl farms in Phuket Island are producing spherical and blister pearls in Pinctada maxima and Pteria penguin. Experimental pearl culturing in freshwater pearl mussels uses Hyriopsis myersiana, H. desowitzi, and Chamberlainia hainesiana.

References: Galtsoff, 1950; Bussarawit, 1995; Panha & Phansuwan, 1996; Panha & Kosavititkul, 1997; Traithong, et al., 1997; Nagachinta & Meejui, 1998.

Tonga — pearl farming has potential for commercial development, particularly in more rural areas. Research has demonstrated the feasibility of producing half-pearls from Pteria penguin, introduced to Vava’u in the 1970s by a Japanese pearl company.

United States · oldest historical record of pearl use by native peoples in what is now Hopewell, Ohio. Freshwater pearl mussels in the Mississippi River drainage basin were extensively harvested for pearls, but most especially for pearl buttons prior to 1920, then for material for the Japanese bead nucleus industry. Red Abalone (Haliotis rufescens) are now cultivated both for food and for blister pearl culturing in California.

References: Kunz, 1893, 1898 [2 articles]; Anonymous, 1906; Keene, 1909; Allen, 1912; Myer, 1914; Jackson, 1916; Moorehead, 1922; van der Schalie, 1960; Sweaney & Latendresse, 1982, 1984; Fassler, 1991; Sparks, 1991; Neves & Williams, 1994; Fankboner, 1995; Costa-Pierce, 1999; Neves, 1999 [2 articles].

Venezuela · historical center in the 14^th and 15^th centuries of harvesting pearls from Pinctada imbricata (sometimes mislabelled P. radiata). Overzealous collecting by Spanish explorers, feeding into the European Renaissance, nearly wiped out the Caribbean populations of this pearl oyster.

Vietnam · freshwater pearl mussels Hyriopsis cumingii, (and to a lesser extent) Cristaria bialata, Anodonta elliptica, A. jourdyi, and Lamprotula sp. are being reared for bead nucleation; Lamprotula is supplying the bead nuclei. Nevertheless most of the pearl harvest of 1993 was tissue-nucleated only. Culture of marine Aloya pearl oysters (Pinctada fucata) was interrupted by the Vietnam War but has begun again, using hatcheries, in cooperation with Australian and Japanese partners. P. maxima is also of prime interest. P. maxima and Pteria penguin are also being used in pearl culturing.

References: Bosshart, et al., 1993; Kim, et al., 1994; Thang, 1994; Tuan & Phung, 1998; Müller, 1999.

Pearl Countries and Regions,

and their products, both natural and cultured